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Law is the system of state-enforced rule

天天题库2020-05-20  37
问题 Law is the system of state-enforced rules by which relatively large civil societies and political entities operate. This programmed social functioning is backed up by the exercise of power by a politically sovereign body.　　1) What constitutes law among the behavioral codes by which groups or individuals in society live has been defined by legal philosophers in three different ways.Some say that law is the command of a sovereign power to obey a rule, with a penalty for violating it. This view is called legal positivism and has been particularly associated with the 19th-century English philosopher John Austin.　　2)On the other side are those who say that law is the application within a state or any other community of rules that are derived from universal principles of morality rooted in turn in revealed religion or reason or a kind of ethical communal sensibility. This view is associated with Thomas Aquinas, in the Middle Ages, who proposed it in the form of natural law theory, and with Lon Fuller and Ronald Dworkin, among recent American legal philosophers.　　In the 1960s the widely respected Oxford philosopher H.L.A. Hart tried to find an intermediate position between these two opposing definitions of law according to positivism and natural law.3) He argued that there are “rules of recognition” in which the obligation of rule conformity is brought, about by “social pressure” and customary social behavior rather than by sovereign command and penalty.　　Many stipulations, Hart claimed, are recognizable as laws that are pragmatic rules for transactions between private parties and functionally lie outside the sphere of sovereign command and penalty. No sovereign power, no matter how ambitious and aggressive, can enforce more than part of the range of laws we live .by. Even the concept of sovereign power is problematic and vulnerable.　　4)Whether Hart really established an intermediate position between the two standard positions in legal philosophy or simply found a new way-subtle, perhaps, or confusing—of associating law with ethics in a context of linguistic anal)sis and pragmatic theory remains a matter of dispute.　　Law is divided into two kinds. First, there is criminal law, by which peace and security are maintained, and whose violation results in publicly administered punishment of greater or lesser severity and brings upon the violator the bad name of moral turpitude.5)Second, there is civil law, which regulates relationships between individuals, families, and corporations involving other than criminal activities and provides state-enforced techniques for accumulating and distributing property and other forms of wealth. For example, murder and robbery fall within the scope of criminal law. Contracts, personal liability, and marriage and divorce are within the scope of civil law.
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解析（1）关于—个社会中团体或个人所遵循的行为规范中有哪些构成法律，法理学家们通过三种方式进行了定义。　　【解析】此句中what引导主语从句；by which引导的定语从句修饰behavioral codes；among the behavioral codes by which…这个比较复杂的介词短语修饰What，正常语序应该是What among the behavioral codes which constitutes law has been defined．．．，但因为作为主语的中心词与谓语动词相隔太远，故后置。live by “以…为生，按…规律生活”，这里引申为“遵循，遵守”；behavioral codes指“行为规范”。另外，由于英汉句子机构的差异，句中的被动语态转译成汉语常用的主动语态，由行为的执行者作主语。（2）另外一些法理学家的观点与此相对，他们认为法律就是源于普遍道德规则在国家或其他政治共同体中运用，而这些普遍道德规则相应地根植于天启教、理性或某种公共道德意识之中。　　【解析】本句采用了倒装句式，主语是those who…，on the other side是表语；who引导定语从句修饰those，在这个定语从句中that law is the application…是一个宾语从句，作谓语动词say的宾语；第二个that从句作定语修饰rules，而rooted in turn in…是过去分词短语作定语，修饰universal principles of morality。另外，application和rules被within a state or any other community隔开，真正的逻辑关系应该是application of rules。短语be derived from….“源自于…”；in turn“依次，相应地”；revealed religion指“天启教”。ethical communal sensibility译为“公共道德意识”。（3）他认为存在着“公认的规则”，遵守这些规则的义务是由“社会压力”和习惯性的社会行为促成的，而不是由国家的命令和惩罚促成的。　　【解析】句中that从句作argued的宾语，which引导的定语从句修饰rules of recognition。brought about本意是“引起，达成”，这里引申为“形成”；rules of recognition“公认的规则”；rather than“而不是…”。（4）哈特是真正在两种权威的法理学观点之间确立了一种中间立场，还是只不过找到了一种将法律与道德规范在语言学分析和实用主义理论的基础上联系起来的(也许更微妙，也许更让人困惑的)新方法，仍然没有定论。　　【解析】Whether…or…引导的是主语从句，译为“是…，还是…”。谓语和宾语是remains a matter of dispute。Associating…with…“将…与…联系起来”；context“环境，背景”。（5）第二种类型是民法，用来调整个人、家庭和公司之间的涉及犯罪行为以外的关系，为财产和其他形式的财富的积累和分配提供国家强制的方法。　　【解析】本句的主句为there be句型，后面which引导非限定性定语从句，修饰civil law。分词短语involving。作定语修饰relationships。短语other than表示“除了”；criminal activities指“犯罪行为”；state-enforced指“国家强制的”。
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